The Mongols launched three major invasions against Vietnam (then known as Đại Việt) between 1258 and 1288. While they succeeded in capturing the Vietnamese capital on occasion, they ultimately failed to conquer the nation, facing tenacious resistance and strategic ingenuity from the Trần Dynasty.
The Mongol Invasions of Vietnam
The Mongol Empire, having established the Yuan Dynasty in China, sought to expand its dominance southward. Their campaigns against Đại Việt were part of this broader expansionist policy.
First Invasion (1258)
The initial Mongol foray into Vietnam occurred in 1258. The Mongol general Uriyangkhadai led forces south, successfully capturing the Vietnamese capital, Thang Long (modern-day Hanoi). This capture was part of a larger, coordinated Mongol attack strategy. After securing Thang Long, Uriyangkhadai's forces turned north in 1259 to invade the Song dynasty in modern-day Guangxi. This move was synchronized with other Mongol armies attacking in Sichuan under Möngke Khan.
Despite the capture of their capital, the Vietnamese, under Emperor Trần Thái Tông and his son Trần Thánh Tông, employed a scorched-earth tactic, evacuating the population and supplies, denying the Mongols resources. The harsh climate and the Vietnamese guerrilla tactics eventually forced the Mongols to withdraw.
Second Invasion (1285)
Following their initial withdrawal, the Mongols, under the leadership of Prince Toghan (a son of Kublai Khan), launched a much larger invasion in 1285. This campaign aimed for a decisive victory to establish direct rule. The Trần Dynasty, led by its brilliant military commander Trần Hưng Đạo, adopted a strategy of strategic retreat and scorched earth, again abandoning Thang Long.
The Vietnamese forces avoided direct pitched battles against the superior Mongol cavalry in open terrain. Instead, they utilized their knowledge of the local geography, launching ambushes and wearing down the Mongol forces. The Mongols suffered heavily from disease, lack of supplies, and continuous harassment. Trần Hưng Đạo then launched counter-offensives, notably at Tây Kết and Chương Dương, inflicting significant losses on the Mongol army and forcing them into a chaotic retreat. Prince Toghan barely escaped with his life.
Third Invasion (1287-1288)
Undeterred, Kublai Khan dispatched another massive expedition, once more under Prince Toghan, in late 1287. This third invasion was arguably the largest, comprising a substantial naval contingent. The Mongols aimed to crush Vietnamese resistance definitively.
However, Trần Hưng Đạo anticipated their strategy. He prepared for a decisive naval battle on the Bạch Đằng River, a site of historical Vietnamese victories against invaders. He ordered the placement of sharpened, iron-tipped wooden stakes beneath the river's surface, strategically timed to coincide with high tides. As the Mongol fleet sailed into the trap, the Vietnamese navy engaged them. When the tide receded, the Mongol ships became impaled on the stakes, rendering them immobile and vulnerable.
The Vietnamese forces, including small, agile boats, launched a devastating assault, destroying virtually the entire Mongol fleet. This catastrophic defeat at the Battle of Bạch Đằng River in 1288 effectively ended the Mongol's ambitions in Vietnam.
Key Factors in Vietnamese Victory
Several factors contributed to the Trần Dynasty's remarkable success in repelling the formidable Mongol Empire:
- Unified National Resistance: The Trần emperors fostered strong national unity, with both the royal family and common people committed to defending their independence.
- Brilliant Military Leadership: General Trần Hưng Đạo's strategic genius, adaptability, and understanding of the terrain were crucial.
- Adaptable Tactics: The Vietnamese mastered tactics such as strategic retreat, scorched earth, guerrilla warfare, and innovative naval strategies (like the Bạch Đằng River stakes).
- Geographic Knowledge: Their familiarity with the dense jungles, rivers, and unpredictable climate worked against the Mongols, who were more accustomed to steppe warfare.
Summary of Invasions
| Invasion Year | Mongol Commander(s) | Vietnamese Dynasty | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1258 | Uriyangkhadai | Trần Dynasty | Mongols captured Thang Long, but withdrew |
| 1285 | Prince Toghan | Trần Dynasty | Mongol forces defeated and forced to retreat |
| 1287-1288 | Prince Toghan | Trần Dynasty | Decisive Vietnamese victory at Bạch Đằng River |
Long-Term Impact
While the Mongols failed to conquer Vietnam, the Trần Dynasty eventually agreed to become a nominal tributary state of the Yuan Dynasty to prevent further invasions, acknowledging a symbolic overlordship. Despite this, Vietnam maintained its political independence and distinct cultural identity. The successful defense against the Mongols became a profound source of national pride and a defining moment in Vietnamese history, solidifying the resilience and strategic prowess of its people.
