Fighting erupted in the Philippines primarily because the United States refused to include Filipino nationalists in negotiations concerning the future of their own nation, following the conclusion of the Spanish-American War.
The Treaty of Paris and Filipino Aspirations
The conflict stemmed directly from events that unfolded after the Spanish-American War ended. While Filipino revolutionaries had been actively fighting for their independence from Spanish colonial rule, their aspirations for self-governance were not recognized by the incoming American power.
On December 10, 1898, the Treaty of Paris was signed. This treaty officially ended the Spanish-American War, and as part of its terms, Spain ceded the Philippines to the United States for $20 million. This transfer of sovereignty occurred without the consultation or consent of the Filipino people or their leaders, who had already declared their own independence and established a provisional government.
The Refusal to Negotiate Ignites Conflict
The crucial turning point that ignited hostilities was the American refusal to involve the nascent Filipino government and its nationalist leaders in discussions about the country's destiny. Despite the Filipinos' long-standing fight for self-governance, the United States asserted its control over the archipelago. This perceived betrayal and the assertion of American authority led to a direct clash between American forces and Filipino rebels, marking the beginning of the Philippine-American War.
The fundamental reasons for the outbreak of fighting can be summarized as:
- Exclusion from Diplomacy: The U.S. government made unilateral decisions about the Philippines' future without the participation of Filipino representatives, despite their established desire for independence.
- Sovereignty Transfer Without Consent: Spain transferred control of the Philippines to the U.S. without the consent of its inhabitants or their self-declared government.
- Conflicting Goals: Filipino nationalists sought immediate, complete independence, while the U.S. intended to establish its own colonial administration, creating an irreconcilable difference in objectives.
